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Week 10 (Unit 18)
World Food Crops and Food SecurityCurrent supply and demand for world food
crops
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Since 1970, the number of food-insecure people in developing countries declined by 17% to the current 800 million, despite rapid population growth. However, progress has not been evenly distributed across the continents. Major improvements occurred in East and Southeast Asia, while the number of food-insecure people increased by 18% in South Asia and more than doubled in sub-Saharan Africa. Malnutrition is a factor in more than five million deaths of children under the age of five each year. As the figure below shows, mortality rates in this age group have declined in the last four decades, but still remain at very high levels in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. |
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| Photo by Keith Weller USDA/ARS |
The following discussion presents the viewpoints expressed in a book entitled World Hunger: 12 Myths, 2nd Edition, by Frances Moore Lappé, Joseph Collins and Peter Rosset, with Luis Esparza.
Source: http://www.foodfirst.org/pubs/backgrdrs/1998/s98v5n3.html
See also the lecture notes by R.J. Salvador that provide additional discussion on these myths: http://www.agron.iastate.edu/courses/agron342/topics342.html
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Wheat
harvest in Syria Photo courtesy ICARDA |
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| Wheat harvest on the Palouse Photo courtesy USDA/ARS |
Source: http://www.worldwatch.org/press/news/1999/04/08/
The world population continues to increase, but as the beginning of the 21st century neared, there were indications that the rate of growth was declining. The United Nations reduced the world population projections for 2050 from 9.4 billion to 8.9 billion. Two thirds of the drop was attributed to falling birth rates, but one third was estimated to be due to rising death rates.
Three factors are thought to be contributing or have potential to contribute to rising death rates:
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| Maize farm in Colorado Photo by Scott Bauer, USDA/ARS |
Maize farm in northern Nigeria Photo courtesy IITA |
Source: Sombroek and Gommes. 1996.
It now seems likely that human activity can alter climate, which in turn can affect agricultural productivity. The relationship between climate change and plant growth is complex, involving the interaction of several systems with many variables that must be collectively considered.
In addition to water vapour, important greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), tropospheric ozone (O3) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
| An overview of agricultural greenhouse gases with the trends as currently envisaged (from Sombroek and Gommes, 1996; adapted from IPCC, 1992; Houghton et al., 1995; Keeling et al., 1995). ppmv and ppbv stand for parts per 106 and parts per 109, respectively, by volume. | |||
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|
CO2 |
CH4 |
N2O |
| Atmospheric lifetime (yr) |
120 |
14.5 |
120 |
| Direct Global Warming Potential (the direct warming effect in relation to CO2 at a time horizon of 100 years) |
1 |
24.5 |
320 |
| Pre-industrial concentration |
280 ppmv |
0.8 ppmv |
288 ppbv |
| Present-day levels |
360 ppmv |
1.72 ppmv |
310 ppbv |
| Current annual increase (%) |
0.5 |
0.9 |
0.25 |
| Major agricultural sources |
deforestation |
- wetland rice |
- synthetic N fertilizers |
| - ruminants |
- animal excreta |
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| - biomass burning |
- biological N fixation |
||
| Percentage of global source stemming from agriculture |
30 |
40 |
25 |
| Predicted change 1990-2020 |
- |
+ |
+ |
The required reductions of emissions to achieve stabilization of atmospheric concentrations of current levels are believed to be >60% for CO2 15-20% for CH4 and 70-80% for N2O.
Effects on precipitation
It is generally agreed that increased temperatures will increase evaporation, atmospheric moisture, and consequently precipitation, by an estimated 10-15%. The potential effects on rainfall intensity and the spatial distribution of precipitation are still being debated. Some researchers predict that rainfall conditions in the Sahel will be more favorable. In general, arid to semiarid regions would benefit from increased rainfall, whereas areas that are already humid would be adversely affected.
Effects on soils
Increased atmospheric CO2 levels due to deforestation, burning of fossil fuels and biomass can increase plant photosynthesis. If conditions are favorable this may result in increased growth and biomass production, particularly in C3 plants. Increased CO2 levels may also reduce numbers and size of leaf stomata, which in turn will reduce transpiration and increase water use efficiency. There is some evidence that high CO2 levels may favor root growth over shoot growth.
Increased ultraviolet radiation (UV-B, between 280 and 320 nanometres), due to depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, mainly in the Antarctic region, may negatively affect terrestrial and aquatic photosynthesis and animal health.
Tropospheric ozone originates equally from photochemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides (NOx), methane or carbon monoxide, and from downward movement of stratospheric ozone. High ozone concentrations in the troposphere have toxic effects on both plant and animal life. The problem of high O3 levels near the earth's surface is greatest near major cities and airports. It is thought that high ozone levels may be the cause of some new types of damage observed on forest trees in Europe and the USA.
Effects of increased temperature on plant growth
Generally, increased temperatures are associated with increased radiation and water use. The net physiological and ecological effects of high temperatures would have to be determined for each specific crop and location.
At the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted. Under this agreement, industrial and former Eastern bloc nations agreed to aim to voluntarily return their emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000. However, nearly all the countries fell short of their initial Rio goals. Globally, carbon emissions grew by 10.2 percent between 1990 and 2001 (Worldwatch Institute, 2001).
The Kyoto Protocol is a legally binding document that would limit emissions of greenhouse gases. As of 15 May, 2003, 84 Parties have signed and 109 Parties have ratified or acceded to the Kyoto Protocol. The USA has not endorsed the Protocol.
In June, 2003 the U.S. Department of Agriculture announced a plan to set up incentives for farmers to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions: http://usinfo.state.gov/gi/Archive/2003/Jun/22-741607.html
"The USDA will provide an unspecified amount of financial incentives for farmers, as well as technical assistance and training in management practices to increase the removal of harmful carbon dioxide and other gases from the atmosphere, a process called "carbon sequestration."
"Forest, crop and grazing land conservation actions will be key to greenhouse gas reductions. Manure management, improved fertilizer use and fuel efficiencies can also help reduce the harmful gases."
"The USDA estimates that by focusing attention on the problem and making a federal investment of almost $3.9 billion in agriculture and forest conservation in fiscal 2004, a reduction of roughly 12 million tons of greenhouse gases can be achieved annually by 2012."
For a recent review of the economic aspects of the USDA's carbon sequestration incentives program: http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/TB1909/
For links to additional information about climate change:
http://www.worldwatch.org/topics/energy/climate/
For specific figures concerning changes that have occurred in the last
decade in fossil fuel use and renewable energy, carbon emissions, and
the impact of climate change:
http://www.worldwatch.org/press/news/2001/07/16/
Source: What is Sustainable Agriculture? SAREP, University of California
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Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals--
The concept of sustainability rests on the principle that we must
meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. Stewardship of both
natural and human resources is of prime importance. |
| Pennsylvania farm Photo by Scott Bauer, USDA/ARS |
Issues related to water quality involve salinization and contamination of ground and surface waters by pesticides, nitrates and selenium. Salinity has become a problem where water is used on shallow soils in arid regions or where the water table is near the root zone of crops. Use of salt tolerant crops and low volume irrigation are two means for reducing the salinity problem.
In sustainable agricultural systems, there is reduced reliance on non-renewable
energy sources and a substitution of renewable sources or labor to the
extent that is economically feasible.
Many agricultural operations affect air quality:
Options to improve air quality include:
Options to improve soil quality include:
Recommendations will be site specific, but here are a few that are general:
In 2000 the UN General Assembly decided to host a World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 in South Africa. This summit was planned to coincide with the tenth anniversary of the UN Conference on Environment and Development, or Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro. The 2002 meeting was the first time since the Rio Conference in 1992 that heads of state and government gathered to assess progress on sustainable development.
For a more general discussion, see "What is Sustainability Anyway?" by Thomas Prugh and Erik Assadourian of the Worldwatch Institute.
In this course, we have discussed the potential for use of Bt corn, golden rice, and other genetically modified crops. Our aim is to examine the controversy surrounding GMO's from different points of view, and to provide the necessary technical background to enable you to make informed decisions about biotechnology issues. In the following sections, we present references and summaries of two diverse views on the role of biotechnology in combating hunger and malnutrition in developing countries.
See:
Conway, Gordon. 2003
McGloughlin, Martina. 1999
Tripp, Robert. 2000
“Human discovery and invention can be thought of as resulting from the exercise of God-given powers of mind and reason” and “in this respect, genetic engineering does not seem very different from other forms of scientific advance.”
See:
Altieri, M.A. & P. Rosset, 1999a
Altieri, M.A. & P. Rosset, 1999b
o Example: Seed-chemical packages such as Roundup Ready soybeans
"When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the
environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause
and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. In
this context the proponent of an activity, rather than the public, should
bear the burden of proof. The process of applying the precautionary principle
must be open, informed and democratic and must include potentially affected
parties. It must also involve an examination of the full range of alternatives,
including no action."
- Wingspread Statement on the Precautionary
Principle, Jan. 1998
 Rice harvesting in Texas Photo by David Nance, USDA/ARS |
 Paddy Rice Photo courtesy IRRI |
Although there may be as many as 50,000 edible plant species in the world, about 103 species account for 90 percent of the world's food crop production. Wheat, rice, and maize account for over 50% of the calories from plants in the human diet.
To increase the biodiversity of our food production systems, organizations such as FAO are promoting adoption of local crops that have the potential to contribute to the global food supply. Many of these crops have unique features that might fill a niche in a particular production environment or satisfy a special dietary need.
In this section we mention just a few of the crops that are thought to have the greatest market potential. See the Purdue NewCrop website for more information about alternative food crops.
Quinoa |
Link to image: News Release from BYU |
Quinoa is native to the high altitudes in the Andes, where it has traditionally been an important staple food crop of the Incas. It is an annual crop that is primarily self-pollinating, growing one to two meters in height. The grain has been called a cereal, although it does not belong to the grass family. In fact, the grain is more nutritious than the true cereals in many respects:
Many landrace varieties contain saponins, which are antinutritional factors that must be removed before the grains are consumed. Saponins can be removed by alkaline water treatment or through mechanical means. Quinoa grain can be cooked like rice, or ground to a flour that can be mixed with wheat flour to make bread. References: |
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| Amaranth (Kiwicha) Amaranthus spp. Family: Amaranthaceae |
Link to image: Lost Crops of the Incas, 1989 |
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The genus Amaranthus includes at least 60 species. Some are weeds, such as the familiar pigweed. The grain Amaranths were important staple food crops of the Aztecs prior to arrival of the Europeans. In rituals it was mixed with blood and shaped into idols, which were eaten ceremoniously. This practice appalled the Spanish Conquistadors, who forbade the use of the crop. Grain Amaranth was ignored for centuries, but today is grown in diverse parts of the world including India, Pakistan, China, and Siberia. It is well-adapted to the southwestern USA. The plants may grow to a height of 2.5 m and the inflorescence may be various colors of purple, red and gold. It is relatively tolerant to heat, drought, and low soil fertility. A single plant may have up to 50,000 small seeds per head. Both the grain and the leaves are edible. The grain may be toasted, boiled, popped, or ground into flour. The raw grain cannot be digested, but once cooked it is easy to digest. It is often used as an alternative grain by people who have allergies to wheat and other cereals. It is also a traditional food for people who are recovering from an illness. It is gaining increasing popularity as a health food crop, because it has relatively high protein content (12-17%) and is high in the amino acid lysine. References: |
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| Tarwi Lupinus mutabilis Sweet Family: Fabaceae |
Link to image: Tarwi |
Tarwi, also known as Andean Lupin, is a South American legume that was a staple crop of the Incas. The protein (46%) and oil (20%) content of tarwi are comparable to soybeans. Although it was domesticated in the highlands, it also grows well in temperate regions. It is tolerant to frost and drought. Its capacity to fix nitrogen makes it useful as a green manure crop. The grain has a high alkaloid content that must be removed by processing before it is consumed. References: |
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| Oca Oxalis tuberosa Family: Oxalidaceae |
Link to image: Paul Gepts, pb143, UC Davis |
| Oca is an Andean tuber crop with white flesh and skin
color that varies from white to red.
It can be eaten fresh, like a carrot, or cooked. Some varieties have a slightly
tart taste due to the presence of oxalic acid, which is an antinutritional
factor also found in spinach. Oca has become a popular crop in Mexico
and New Zealand, where it is called "New Zealand yam". It can also
be grown in Oregon!
References: |
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power point presentation
brochure (pdf)
There are 800 million hungry people and in the world, and 170 million children under age five who are malnourished. In 1993 IFPRI and its partners launched an initiative called the 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture and the Environment, that seeks to develop and promote a shared vision for how to meet the world’s food needs while reducing poverty and protecting the environment. The highlights of their action plan are presented here.
At the World Food Summit (WFS) of 1996 the global community agreed to take steps to halve the number of hungry people in the world by 2015. While some progress has been made, the reduction in poverty has fallen far short of the mark. IFPRI projections for the year 2020 show that in the most likely scenario, the number of malnourished preschool children could decline by about 20 percent, but as many as 130 million children will still be afflicted by malnutrition.
1) Accelerating globalization and further trade liberalization - policymakers must ensure that globalization benefits poor people.
2) Sweeping technological changes - Technological advances in molecular biology, energy, and information and communications have the potential to help achieve food security and make natural resource management more sustainable, but policymakers and researchers must target their efforts to reach poor people.
3) Degradation of natural resources and increasing water scarcity - environmental degradation contributes to poverty, but also often results from it. Food security solutions must effectively address natural resource issues to be sustainable.
4) Health and nutrition crises - Malaria, tuberculosis, micronutrient deficiencies, HIV/AIDS, and chronic diseases are all compromising food and nutrition security in many developing countries.
5) Rapid urbanization - current policies must continue to focus on the countryside, where the majority of poor and food-insecure people still live, but future policy actions must pay increasing attention to growing poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition in urban areas.
6) The changing face of farming - the farm population is aging, labor shortages are exacerbated by HIV/AIDS, and more women are farming. Traditional, small-scale family farms are threatened.
7) Continued conflict - Achieving sustainable food security for all will not be possible in the midst of conflict.
8) Climate Change - Agricultural policies must focus on finding ways to keep agriculture productive as climate change continues.
9) Changing roles and responsibilities of key actors - Local governments, business and industry, NGOs, and other parts of civil society are undertaking many activities previously performed by national governments. At the global level, transnational corporations and broad NGO coalitions are becoming increasingly prominent in policy debates. National governments must continue to uphold the rule of law and to develop nationwide infrastructure.
| America's Second Harvest | America's Second Harvest is the nation's largest hunger-relief
organization, distributing surplus food to more than 23 million hungry Americans each year. |
| Bread for the World,
BFW Bread for the World Institute |
BFW is a nationwide Christian citizens movement seeking justice
for the world's hungry people by lobbying our nation's decision
makers. BFW Institute seeks justice for hungry people by engaging in research and education on policies related to hunger and development. |
| CARE | CARE's mission is to serve individuals and families in the poorest communities in the world. |
| Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, CGIAR | The CGIAR's mission is to achieve sustainable food security and reduce poverty in developing countries through scientific research and research-related activities in the fields of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, policy, and environment. |
| Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO | FAO's mission is to alleviate poverty and hunger by promoting agricultural development, improved nutrition and the pursuit of food security |
| Institute for Food and Development Policy, Food First | The purpose of the Institute for Food and Development Policy - Food First - is to eliminate the injustices that cause hunger. They implement their strategy through research, analysis and education for action to inspire and mobilize people and their organizations to transform systems and institutions that perpetuate those injustices. |
| International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI | IFPRI's mission is to identify and analyze policies for sustainably meeting the food needs of the developing world. |
| Mercy Corps | Mercy Corps aims to alleviate suffering, poverty, and oppression by helping people build secure, productive, and just communities. Their headquarters are in Portland, Oregon. |
| Oxfam | Oxfam GB is a development, relief, and campaigning organisation that works with others to find lasting solutions to poverty and suffering around the world. |
| The Rockefeller Foundation African Food Security Initiative |
The Food Security program of the Rockefeller Foundation aims to improve the food security of the rural poor through the generation of agricultural technologies, institutions and policies that will provide sustainable livelihoods in areas of sub-Saharan Africa and Asia bypassed by the Green Revolution. |
| United Nations Children's fund, UNICEF | UNICEF advocates for the protection of children's rights and to help meet their basic needs. |
| United Nations Development Program, UNDP | UNDP is the UN's global development network, advocating for change and connecting countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life. |
| World Health Organization, WHO | The objective of The World Health Organization, the United Nations specialized agency for health, is the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health. Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. |
| World Hunger Education Service, WHES | One of the objectives of WHES is to inform the community of people interested in issues of hunger and poverty, the public, and policymakers, about the causes, extent, and efforts to end hunger and poverty in the United States and the world. |
| World Vision, International, WVI | World Vision International is a Christian relief and development organisation working for the well being of all people, especially children. |
| The
Hunger Site http://www.thehungersite.com/ |
Your click on the "Give Free Food" button funds food for the hungry, paid for by site sponsors whose ads appear after you click. The food is provided to people in need around the world through the efforts of Mercy Corps and America's Second Harvest. You can click on the "Give Free Food" button once a day. |
| HungerWeb http://nutrition.tufts.edu/academic/hungerweb/ |
HungerWeb is for researchers, educators, policy influencers, operations personnel, other professionals and students using the Internet to help find solutions to hunger at the global, national, community and household level—or for anyone who is interested in learning more about the subject. |
| National Hunger Awareness Day http://www.hungerday.org/ |
On June 7th, 2005 communities across the country will unite to focus attention on the persistent problem of domestic hunger. |
The purpose of this lecture is to discuss issues related to the world food situation and to provide you with resources to learn more. You will not be expected to remember all of the details in this lecture on an exam. Consequently, there will be no optional quiz, but Study questions on this lecture are available to help you review for the final.
(Each assignment is worth five points. You may choose only one)
Altieri, M.A. & P. Rosset. 1999. Ten reasons why biotechnology will not ensure food security, protect the environment and reduce poverty in the developing world. AgBioForum – Volume 2, Number 3 & 4: 155-162. http://www.agbioforum.org
Fischer, G., K. Frohberg, M.L. Parry, C. Rosenzweig. 1996. The potential
effects of climate change on world food production and security. In
Bazzaz, F., and W. Sombroek (eds.) Global climate change and agricultural
production: Direct and indirect effects of changing hydrological, pedological
and plant physiological processes. FAO, Rome.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/W5183E/w5183e0b.htm
IFDP. 1998. 12 Myths About Hunger. Based on World Hunger: 12 Myths, 2nd
Edition, by Frances Moore Lappé, Joseph Collins and Peter Rosset,
with Luis Esparza.
http://www.foodfirst.org/pubs/backgrdrs/1998/s98v5n3.html
IFPRI. 2003. IFPRI's Strategy Toward Food and Nutrition Security, 2003.
http://www.ifpri.org/about/gi14.pdf
International Food Policy Research Institute. 2002. Achieving sustainable
food security for all by 2020: priorities and responsibilities.
http://www.ifpri.org/2020/books/actionshort.pdf
Levetin, E. and K. McMahon. 2005. Feeding a hungry world. Chapter 15
in Plants and Society, 4th edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Additional on-line notes and references:
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072528427/student_view0/chapter15/chapter_outline.html
McGloughlin, Martina. 1999. Ten reasons why biotechnology will be important to the developing world. AgBioForum – Volume 2, Numbers 3 & 4: 163-174. http://www.agbioforum.org
Mujica, A. 1994. Andean grains and legumes. In J.E. Hernándo
Bermejo and J. León (eds.). Plant Production and Protection Series
No. 26. FAO, Rome, Italy. p. 131–148.
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/grains.html
National Research Council. 1989. Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known
Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation. National
Academy Press.
http://books.nap.edu/books/030904264X/html/index.html
Pinstrup-Andersen, P. and M.J. Cohen. 2003. Overview of the world food
situation and outlook.
http://www.foodsciencecentral.com/library.html#ifis/11736
Sombroek, W.G., and R. Gommes. 1996. The climate change - Agriculture
conundrum. In Bazzaz, F., and W. Sombroek (eds.) Global climate
change and agricultural production. Direct and indirect effects of changing
hydrological, pedological and plant physiological processes. FAO, Rome.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/W5183E/w5183e03.htm
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program. 1997. What is
Sustainable Agriculture?
University of California.
http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/concept.htm
Tripp, Robert. 2000. GMOs and NGOs: Biotechnology, the policy process,
and the presentation of evidence. Natural Resource Perspectives No. 60.
http://www.odi.org.uk/nrp/60.html
Worldwatch Institute. 2003. Climate Change.
http://www.worldwatch.org/topics/energy/climate/
Worldwatch Institute. 2001. The hard numbers on climate change.
http://www.worldwatch.org/press/news/2001/07/16/
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