I worked for the Federal Government (US EPA, US Senate, & US Small Business Administration’s Office of Advocacy) for nearly 4 decades. And, for 2.5 concurrent decades, I taught at a university. I’m a resource & regulatory economist. I’m also a member of the NC Chapter of TWS and hunter education instructor for the NC Wildlife Resources Commission.

Perhaps, I am naive. But, my experiences tell me that being an objective scientist was more of the rule in the 1960s and early 1970s. Back then, I had division directors read to me from the engineer’s code of ethics. I was in meetings with Assistant Administrators who chastised staff for bringing forth their recommendation and not presenting any alternatives. These decision makers were not advocating normative science. The decision makers wanted their staffs to inform them based on positive science, engineering, and analysis.

However, my view is that positive science has lost favor relative to disguised normative science. Not only that, but, today the scarcity of positive science imparts costs to the scientist and society.

In today’s government agency and institutional settings, the deck can often be stacked against the objective scientist. Governmental and other institutions claim to be diverse as reflected by the variations in the color, gender, race, national origin, creed, etc. But, these institutions lack diversity in terms of the normative views of staff and management on regulatory, policy, or legislative matters. That lack of diversity can impart a disguised normative bias revealed in research agendas, study designs, and assessments.

The cost to those positive scientists of the minority normative view can be foregone research grants, publications, and promotions should their normative positions be made public and/or their positive science studies generate results counter to the hypotheses favored by the majority normative view.

However, in my view, the cost to the public is sometimes greater, being manifest in terms of lack of trust and polarization. In such an environment, win/win solutions are not only ignored. They are not even brought to the bargaining table.

Can we go back to the future? Before Milton Friedman’s “Essays in Positive Economics”, there was Aldo Leopold’s “Sand County Almanac.” There, we learned that “ethical behavior is doing the right thing when no one else is watching-even when doing the wrong thing is legal.” To me, there is a corollary in avoiding stealth normative science. To wit: “doing what is right, when bosses, colleagues, political appointees, and elected officials are looking.”

A positive scientist can sometimes provide answers desired by a political appointee, university donor, colleagues, advocacy groups, or the majority of civil servants while not practicing stealth normative science. However, there will be times when the answer(s) provided by the positive scientist does (do) not suit the political appointee, the majority of scientist’s colleagues, the donors, and/or advocacy groups. So what! The comparative advantage, success, and value of positive science is not measured in smiley faces.

But others may not define “success” as you do. A policy advisor may define success as whether their boss gets re-elected. Other examples are obvious.

But why should scientists have an obligation to do this when no other segment of society does? I’ve never heard an industry representative say, “Of course, my job is dependent on convincing you that this project won’t have any detrimental environmental effects.” I’ve never heard an economist say, “But remember that the world view of my chosen discipline, which I’ve been professionally and socially emersed in for decades, believes that resources are infinite.”

Why should scientists who study the natural world in one way or another have this special obligation?

My point is, let’s get past the hypocrisy and be more honest like our parents tried to teach us. Fortunately, the National Academy of Sciences heard our concerns for the CSRS, so that we avoided another “Klamath” catastrophe, for which scientific uncertainty was overemphasized to keep the irrigation pipes flowing that subsequently caused large fish kills (including for ESA-listed species) in that OR/CA river. Although science isn’t perfect, it’s like democracy in being better than the alternatives. Now that scientists have a greater place at the decision-making table than was formerly the case (e.g., see this recent book: http://rockfishwarning.com), industrial interests need to accept that fact, rather than engage in biased criticism (stealth manipulation) to try to return the world to pre-1970s era environmental standards.

Finally, few of the respondents above admitted what their professions are, which I do find to be highly ironic for transparency’s sake. I freely admit to being an aquatic ecologist, a profession that developed from having a father who was both an aquatic biologist and active outdoorsman. So if I didn’t like normative science and fish and wildlife harvesting, then I never would’ve become an agency biologist. I’ve always been honest about this, so Lackey’s article seems to set up a “straw man” to some extent. But it’s true that not all scientists are objective about their agendas, regardless of their affiliations: academic, agency, consulting, or industrial. That does need to change.

Anyway, my take-home message from Lackey’s writings is that we scientists should explicitly state our interest is in restoring ecosystems towards their natural, historical conditions, which we hope that politicians will consider when making decisions that affect fish, wildlife, and plants. Otherwise, society might as well fire all natural-resource scientists and managers who collectively try to (a) understand how ecosystems work and (b) restore normative (semi-natural) functions like instream-flow and wildfire regimes. After all, changes in the magnitude and frequency of disturbances will impact ecosystem function. And we can examine biotic assemblages to better understand how badly ecosystem function is impacted.

Unfortunately, I believe that scientists, especially those whose work affects natural resource protection, allocation and development, are the professionals most susceptible these days to accusations of value-bias (and have been since the “morning in America” presidency, when the actor replaced the scientist). The eagerness to attack scientists, collectively and individually, is not motivated by objectivity but rather is a value-laden, stealth attack on those whose scientific conclusions threaten entrenched interests of the status quo.

In other words, many if not most of those who vociferously admonish scientists to remain value-neutral are not particularly interested in ensuring the science is unpacked from whatever values scientists may bring to their research, but are instead intent on discrediting the science itself — the modus operandi being to attack the scientist for harboring stealth values thereby invalidating the scientific research and conclusions.

In this context, it is my opinion that many scientists have failed to adequately defend themselves, their work and their profession and, sadly, often capitulate before the battle begins. If science is important, then I believe scientists, collectively and individually — whose profession and work ostensibly depend upon and value an open and democratic society — have the responsibility and the duty to challenge and correct policy makers, public officials as well as private interests who misuse or distort scientific research and analysis in the service of THEIR value-laden objectives and goals. Unfortunately, such challenges are usually not forthcoming. What a shame.

The discussion above has already examined the need for objectivity, self-discipline and restraint when interpreting for laypersons (i.e., the public and policymakers) the meaning of individual studies and/or a synthesis of a body of work. Clearly, this is the duty of every scientist, to evaluate the likely outcomes resulting from an array of experiemental treatments (or management alternatives) and clearly convey these findings in as value-neutral manner as possible, so that our constituents will be armed with “the facts” and thereby be better enabled to reach rational decisions concerning the issues at hand. In concept, this sounds like a very simple and forthright endeavor, requiring only a sound ethical compass. However, I would propose that doing so is more complicated than it seems.

Although many of us are aware of the values and biases that we consciously harbor and express during discussions of varying sorts through the day, fewer of us recognize that we also have unconscious bias that underlie our conscious thoughts. Indeed, such unconscious bias is acquired as we develop through our lives, especially during our formative years, as well as during our period of formal education (and beyond). The values, attitudes and ways of reasoning that we assimilate (frequently without giving them any critical thought) shape the manner in which we perceive the world around us and interact with it. The unfortunate feature of our unconscious bias is that we are normally unaware that it is a driving force in the way we think and speak about issues and, perhaps worst, these biases are assimilated and held (often for a lifetime) without ever receiving the critical evaluation (and when appropriate the rejection) that they deserve. Therefore, a potential danger exists that one’s tendency toward normative science many not just be driven by values consciously held (that in theory could be revised as more knowledge and wisdom is acquired) but also underpinned by the unconscious bias that are deeply held, rarely if ever examined and thus resistent to enlightenment.

The possibility that unconscious bias, as well as conscious bias, may be linked to tendencies toward the practice of normative science indicates the need for introspective analysis on the part of each scientist. Each of us should periodically revisit our beliefs and personally challenge our own assumptions, so that we can verify them to be valid, revise them as needed and reject them when we see that they are obsolete. Undertaking such an effort in isolation, though possible, may not be the most productive course of action. Fortunately, we have great colleauges with whom insightful interaction can provide us clues as to when our unconscious bias may interfere with our objectivity, value-neutrality and even more fundamental issues. I suggest that by being of such service to one another, in a positive and supportive way, we can help our colleagues clarify their motives, refrain from inappropriate normative science tendencies and, in the process, improve ourselves, our science and the larger society that our science serves.

First, many statements made by scientists take place within an ongoing conversation, or in specific contexts, in which values and goals are assumed and variously shared. Nearly all Americans, for instance, believe that the loss of a species is a bad and unwanted development, putting aside other considerations. Even more believe that the loss of a human life is bad and unwanted, without regard for the race, ethnicity or gender of the human. Costs and competing concerns always come into play, but it is not somehow deceptive or professionally inappropriate for a scientist to participate in a conversation and, in doing so, to blend science with the values and goals shared by other participants in the conversation. We don’t insist, for instance, that medical researchers make clear in each publication that, in their view, it is normative good to save human life. The field of conservation biology (like medical research) was expressly set up this way, as an enterprise that incorporates particular values. Bob Lackey’s analysis is, of course, sound, but the error of scientists is sometimes understandable and harmless; they take certain values for granted, and assume that audiences do so as well. That said, it’s good to be clear about assumed values, and it is often easy to do so in only a few words–for instance, by prefacing a statement with “assuming we want to keep out lands healthy . . . .” (It is useful here to link the discussion with the longstanding recognition that funded scientific research is almost always motivated and guided by particular normative concerns.)

Second, the discussion so far has focused only one side of what I see as a two-sided problem. It has highlighted the tendency of scientists in some settings to mix scientific conclusions with normative standards (offering blended statements that are, in many instances, more valuable to audiences because they do go beyond science). The other side of the problem arises when nonscientists turn to science and ask for an answer to a problem that is unwisely framed in terms of science. That is, an issue of public policy gets framed as a scientific question without much recognition that important normative assumptions are embedded in the framing. A visible example today is our social tendency to frame climate change in terms of scientific proof: Has it been scientifically proven (that is, are we very confident) that human activities are altering the climate? That’s the question as typically framed, and the ensuing debate is mostly (not entirely, thankfully) framed in terms of scientific proof. But is that a reasonable way to frame the issue as a matter of public policy? Isn’t it more sensible, normatively, to ask: Is the evidence we have, that humans are altering the atmosphere, sufficient to warrant corrective or mitigating action starting now? Who would get on an airplane if told that the plane might crash, but that–not to worry–the feared crash has not been demonstrated by peer-reviewed studies that rise to the level of scientific certainty? In daily life we take steps to reduce dangers that are, in fact, quite remote, and wisely so. Similarly, we rely on all available evidence, whether or not peer reviewed. In short, a scientist asked a scientific question–is it proven that X will happen?–might rightly answer the science question, but might also, and usefully, highlight that the question itself has normative assumptions embedded in it, assumptions that are usefully teased out and thought about directly.

A variant of this second-side of the science-versus-normative-thought problem arises when lawmakers insist that a particular decision be made based solely on science when, in fact, the question being posed requires, for resolution, normative thinking along with the science. Here the problem is not scientists acting wrongly by incorporating normative issues (the problem Bob addresses) but, instead, lawmakers who wrongly assume that a question is one simply of science. Well-known illustrations here include findings that a species is “endangered” under the ESA or that a given level of ambient air pollution fails to protect public health with an adequate margin of safety (from the Clean Air Act). The term “adequate margin of safety” is plainly not a question of pure science, but neither is the term public health. As for a species, a scientist might predict the percentage chance that a given population will disappear in a given number of years, but it is a normative issue to decide whether a given chance of disappearance in a given number of years (e.g., 10 percent chance in 200 years) does or does not qualify as “endangered.” In both settings, however, federal law insists that decisions be based only on science.

Too often society turns to scientists to give guidance on policy questions that mix scientific fact with normative considerations. The external pressure is there, and it is not soon to disappear. Scientists, as Bob says, are wise to make clear when their answers go beyond science–when they assume certain values or goals–and to be particularly clear when the values and goals might be contested (as they sometimes are not). But scientists can also help when questions directly posed to them either include normative elements (as in the ESA and CAA illustrations) or when the posing of a policy question in science terms reflects an unwitting and perhaps unwise normative stance. In both instances, scientists can help public thinking by highlighting the normative issues. Of course, others could help with this work as well, particularly those with a legal sense who know quite well that burdens of proof on an issue can differ widely and that the choice of a burden of proof in a given setting can greatly affect the ultimate decision.

In the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife at Oregon State, I teach a class for seniors called “Effective Communication in Fisheries and Wildlife Science.” We have had the pleasure of hosting Dr. Lackey on many occasions to give a talk on this very topic. It’s a bit of a thrill to witness how students react to this perspective! Given our discussions following these lectures, it’s clear that nearly every student is guilty of practicing normative science. Can they be blamed? They’re all pursuing careers in this field because of their passion for the outdoors, their love of nature, and desire to conserve what we can in order for wildlife to persevere. Naturally, they’re advocates! Flip on any Animal Planet or National Geographic special and we’ll hear endless variations of the value-laden terms Dr. Lackey mentions. Is it any wonder our future wildlife managers and biologists enter the university predisposed to advocacy and normative science?

There is a certain absolutism to Dr. Lackey’s views which can be hard to swallow. Phrases such as “practice stealth advocacy,” “preferences masked within” and “hidden preferences,” imply there is some deliberateness to these behaviors. I’m not certain the conspiratorial tone is intentional, but if a scientist doesn’t know he/she is practicing normative science, does that make it okay? Of course not. Given the number of students that have unknowingly been using normative science, these discussions compel students to “think different” – an exercise in critical thinking that’s desperately needed before they depart academic life. Fostering self-awareness in our early-career scientists is the best thing we can do!

In terms of the latter, a scientific analyst is one who applies the findings of science to policy-relevant questions. An analyst is not a purveyor of scientific knowledge but rather a user of that knowledge; similar to the distinction between a medical researcher and a doctor. These two roles are quite distinct and many of the problems of normative science arise when research scientists are thrust into acting as scientific analysts; they require quite different skill sets.

At a philosophical level, it has been argued extensively that normative science is an issue even with research scientists (e.g., in the hypotheses that are tested, the methods used); however the normative science that Lackey is describing largely arises at the public policy interface in natural resource management. This interface is the domain of policy analysts and is where stealth advocacy is most prevalent.

Government agencies are in the business of implementing normative decisions made through the political process. In my view, it is essential that clear decisions are made through this process as to what is an acceptable level of risk in a particular situation or that they lay out a clear, fair and conclusive means to arrive at such decisions on an individual case. Further, I see great benefit in the political process making normative decisions as to the types of information that are needed to make a responsible decision. It is then the duty of the analyst to not only produce the appropriate technically sound analyses based on the best available science but to also communicate clearly the basis for the results and any nuances’ associated with the interpretation of the results (e.g., potential for irreversible changes).

Where we appear to differ is where “speaking from a place of wisdom founded on sound logic” stops and normative science begins. Where in the public policy decision-making process should “your deep knowledge and understanding” be applied? No problem if it is used to ensure that the results of your scientifically-based analysis are fully understood by those making the decision. It is a problem when you use ” your deep knowledge and understanding” as a lever to elevate your position in the policy decision-making process from analyst to a cloaked decision-maker and you use your scientific aura of “deep knowledge and understanding” to influence significantly what course of action is best in your opinion. Deciding what public policy decision is best is not a question science is equipped to answer.

The lines between science, policy, politics, law, and opinion were frequently blurred. I wish that I could say that the confusion was only with external partners, but there was all too often confusion internally as well. And why should we be surprised? In his article Dr. Lackey states, Normative science is defined as “information that is developed, presented or interpreted based on an assumed, usually unstated, preference for a particular policy choice.””

Regulatory Agencies like the EPA are, by their very nature, driven by normative science. EPA’s mandate is to interpret and enforce laws and regulations that have emerged from Congress and, while Congress may be influenced by science, the laws invariably reflect particular policy choices. The problem is that the public, and often EPA employees themselves, see EPA as a scientific organization. While places like the EPA Corvallis Lab and the Office for Research and Development may be engaged in a purer form of scientific inquiry, most regulatory scientific requirements are based on policy dictates.

For example, many of EPA’s rules center around the question; “What constitutes an acceptable risk?” Deciding what risks are acceptable is, at its heart, a value-laden decision. Central to this decision is the question of who and/or what are trying to protect: salmon, snail darters, children, adults, groundwater, the economy, the environment, future generations? What is an acceptable risk: one in a million additional cancers, lack of bio-diversity, extinction? Etc.

Regulatory agencies collect science-based data, which is then applied to enforce laws and regulations. The fact that much of EPA’s data reflects embedded policy can be misunderstood, ignored or forgotten. People using EPA’s numbers to do science may not realize that they often reflect “normative” science. EPA itself is not as clear as it could be about when it is operating from a purely scientific or a policy base.

While scientists can and should be vigilant about slipping into normative science, they are often caught in the middle. Regardless of how fastidious you are, your work is likely to enter the legal/policy arena where it is prone to take on a life of its own.

While it is important to present science with dispassionate realism (neither optimistic nor pessimistic, as Dr. Lackey suggests) there may be a time when scientists serve us best by shedding the scientific shield and speaking from a place of wisdom founded on sound logic. This, I think, is what scientists like James Hansen are doing. Science can provide data, information, and knowledge, but to what end if society doesn’t apply wisdom? Wisdom is not a purely scientific endeavor and needs to be differentiated, but the alternative is to cede your wisdom to a politicized discourse bereft of your deep knowledge and understanding.

In my view the integrity of science world wide is very much under threat because the purpose of is less about finding the ‘truth’ and more about serving the master (politics and/or commerce).

Note that i have used the term ‘normative’ to mean ‘maintaining the norm’ (as in science for science sake”).

Of course this is all necessary and we do need to take an active role in how science is used in the public discourse and in policy making. My point is that scientists have a new responsibility that may not have existed to such an extent in past years. A responsibility to declare the limits of their work and a responsibility to educate others, in this case policy makers, where the scientists job ends and the policy makers job begins.

Looking forward to a career in which I integrate policy and science I greatly appreciate Dr. Lackey’s viewpoints on the role of scientists in policy making. Science is one of many important factors that need to be considered in policy and I strongly feel that the topic of normative science should be common in our dialogue.