AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FIGURE IN WOOD
Harold O. Beals and Terry C. Davis
This publication presents abstracts of articles concerning figure in wood some
of which have not been included in other bibliographies. An attempt has been
made to include all references on this subject except those in Russian.
Principal sources of information were major international journals in wood
science and technology and personal communication with active researchers in
this field. Since many references are in Scandinavian languages and some
journals are obscure and generally not available in many libraries in the
United States, a library source has been provided. These abstracts indicate
that the major portion of work on figure in wood in the United States was done
many years ago and that little current research on this subject is being
conducted. European literature indicates a concentration on the "Masur"
figure, a type that has not been reported in North America.
This bibliography represents a portion of a larger study concerning figure in
wood that will be published at a later date.
Anonymous 1952. Sloping Grain in Timber. Comm. Scient. and Ind. Res. Org.
Trade Cir. No 48. Melbourne (Australia). 17 pp. 29 figs.
A nontechnical article considering various types of sloping grain and
relationships of sloping grain to figure.
Anonymous. 1939. (Rev. 1960). Figure in Timber. Comm. Scient. and Ind. Res.
Org., Div. of For. Prod Trade Cir. No. 43. Melbourne (Australia). 8 pp. 17
ill. A well illustrated treatise on figure in non-technical language describing how
various types of figure are formed. Relationships and differences among grain,
texture, and figure are discussed.
Anonymous (An Old Timer). 1941. Cause of Bird's Eyes in Maple. Wood Products
(Now Wood and Wood Products) 46(4):42. Univ. of Ga. Library.
Suggests several possible causes for bird's-eye figure including heredity and
slow growth Appearance of this figure in living trees is described.
Anonymous. 1929. What Causes "Birds-Eye" Maple. Lake States For. Exp. Sta.
Tech. Note No.13. 1 p.
A brief note concerning bird's-eye figure in sugar maple (Acer saccharum
Marsh) with observations on growth rates of trees containing this figure.
Mentions attempts by this Station and the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory to
establish studies concerning heretibility of this figure in wood and
propagation techniques started in 1928.
Anonymous. 1967. Dimpled Grain in Lodgepole and Jack Pine. Res. News, Dept. of
For. and Rural Dev. (Canada) 10(4) :3-4, 1 ill.
A note on dimpled grain occurring in several coniferous species. Cause of
dimples is attributed to resin blisters pressing into the cambial zone, thus
retarding xylem formation in the vicinity of the blisters. (See Chafe, S.C.)
Bailey, L. F. 1948. Figured Wood; A Study of Methods of Production. J.
Forestry 46:119-125. 19 figs. 20 refs. A description of several possible
methods of producing figure in wood by artificial means including twisting,
mutilating, and deforming practices. Several grafted trees are described.
Baumer, M. 1958. Figure in Wood. Wood (London) 18:178-181, 212-215, and 302-304.
(Translated by J. L. Robertson from articles appearing in Bois et Forêts
de Tropique July-August 1952) 18 Figs. 9 Refs. (Coll. of For. Library, Syracuse,
N.Y.) For. Abst. 14 No. 1500.
A series of four articles concerning figure formation. Part I considers
anatomical aspects of figure formation such as grain, texture, structure, and
color. Part II considers figure that occurs in different parts of trees and in
more detail with various figure types formed by curly, wavy, and interlocked
grain. Part III is a continuation on variations in structure and effects of
conversion on emphasizing figures. Part IV discusses the more common
distinctive figure classifications.
Beals, H. 0. and T. C. Davis 1966. Fiddleback and Quilted Figures in Wood. J.
Ala. Acad. of Sci. 37:263.
Fiddleback figure occurs on the radial face of certain wood while quilted
figures appears on tangential faces. Fiddleback figure is regular in
occurrence and exhibits a corrugated appearance when woods are split radially
Quilted figures are usually irregular and appear as convex intersecting areas
on one side and concave surfaces on the other.
Bennigsen, A. 1928. Uber die Karelische Maserbirke (on the curly Masur Birch)
Deut. Dendr. Gesell. 41:393. Not seen
Berry, F. M. 1942. The Anatomy of Bird's-Eye Figure in Sugar Maple (Acer
saccharum Marsh). Unpublished progress report. Dept. of For. Mich. St. Coll.
19 pp. 16 photos. (Copy from Author).
A preliminary study of the anatomy of bird's-eye figure in hard maple. The
formation of "pegs" from the phloem into the xylem and an enlargement of rays
are illustrated. "Stone cells" are a universal feature associated with the
indented portion of "the eye" in phloem. Pit-like depressions in the bark of
old bird's-eye trees result from the periderm following contours of the
initial phloem indentation.
Bitters, W. P. and E. R Parker. 1953. Quick Decline of Citrus as Influenced by
Top-Root Relationships. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 733. 35 pp. 5 figs. 58
refs.
This publication does not consider figure in wood directly but mentions
numerous reports from the citrus industry where the disease known as "quick
decline" exhibits stem pitting similar to that found in the Masur figure in
Birch (Betula spp.).
Boyce, J. S. 1961. Forest Pathology. (Third Ed.) McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, pp. 298-305.
A description of pathological aspects of gall and burl formation. No conclus-ions are given as to formation of burls that are utilized for figured wood.
Buds are associated with some types of burl but it is not known whether these
buds initiate figure in subsequent wood formation.
Carpenter, J. B. and J. R. Furr. 1960. Wood Pitting of Undetermined Cause in
Unbudded Citrus Seedlings. Plant Disease Reptr. 44(12):91x-918. 1 photo. 6
refs.
Wood pitting of unknown origin was discovered in unbudded citrus seedlings.
This discovery caused speculation that such pitting may riot be an indication
of diseases as formerly suspected.
Chafe, S, C. 1969. Dimpled Grain in Wood. For. Chronicle 45(3)1-7. 11 figs. 10
refs.
An examination of the formation of dimpled grain in lodgepole pine (Pinus
contorta Dougl. var. latifolia Engelm.), jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.),
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws.), and sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis
(Bong.) Carr.). Dimpling in the pines was traced to resin blisters in the
inner bark, but caused by sclerids in spruce.
Conrad, J. 1957. Plusbaumauswahl unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der
Holzqualität (The choice of plus trees with particular reference to wood
quality.) Forstarcbiv 28(7) :133-137. Text in German. 7 photos. 14 Refs. (Duke
Univ. Library). For. Abst.:19 No.112.
A discussion of the need to consider figure as one qualification in selection
of superior trees for propagation. Several figure types are illustrated.
Conrad, J. 1959. Die Riegelbildung bei unseren Laubholzarten (Fiddle-back
figure in our hardwoods). Allegemeine Forstzeitschrift 6(5):635-639. Text in
German. 6 photos. (Midwest Inter-Library Center, Chicago).
Fiddleback figure that occurs in several native species including sycamore,
maple, and ash is discussed. Occurrence of figure in other species, to a
lesser extent is mentioned. Photographs illustrating fiddleback figure are
included.
Davis, E.M. 1961. Some Observations on Bird's-Eye Maple. USDA Forest Prod.
Lab. Rept. (Unnumbered). 2 pp. 10 photos.
Observations of bird's-eye figure in sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.)
splitting blocks containing this figure. Illustrations show how indentations
follow rays and progress as indentations along the same radial line over many
years.
Feihl, A. O. 1964. Rotary Cutting of Curly Yellow Birch. Dept. of For.
Publication No.1086 (Ottawa) Canada. 18 pp. 5 ill. 2 tables, 2 refs.
A description of difficulties encountered in cutting curly yellow birch
(Betula alleghaniensis Britt.) veneer by the rotary method. Emphasizes veneer
lathe settings rather than figure.
Fine Hardwoods Association. No date. Veneers - Figure in Wood. Book 4,
Educational Series. 11 pp. 18 photos.
A booklet illustrating the most common figure types. Brief explanations of
each figure type (including development) are given. A non-technical
publication that gives good coverage of most common figures with
illustrations.
Fritz, E. 1950. Redwood Burls. Redwood Region Conf. Bull. (Mimeographed)
California Redwood Assoc. 2 pp.
A discussion of burl formation in Redwood. Describes how commercial burls are
utilized. Typical redwood burls do not arise from injuries but are thought to
originate from dormant buds.
Gardiner, A. E. 1962. A Note on the Variation of Flamy Figure in Silver Birch
(Betula verrucosa Ehrh.). Silvae Genet. 11(5/6):161-163.
Several types of flamy figure occur in Betula verrucosa. Descriptions of
different variations of this figure are presented.
Gardiner, A. S. 1965. "Flamy" Birch and its Frequency in some Highland
Populations. Scottish Forestry 19(3):180-186.
A discussion of the occurrence of flamy (curly) figure in Scottish birch
(Betula spp.). Tabulations of data showing correlations of figured wood with
bark characteristics are given.
Ghosh, S. S. 1959. Decorative Features of some Indian Timbers. Timber Trade
J., Calcutta (India). 11 pp. 33 ill.
A semi-technical article concerning figure and its formation. Some 20 or more
woods are described with illustrations of the more typical figure patterns
that occur.
Gruschow, G. F. 1959. Curly Pine. Southern Lumberman 193:189-190.
3 photos.
A popular article describing the figured lumber of curly pine that occurs in
several species of Southern Pine.
Hamlin, M. J. 1931. Pecularities of Figured Woods. Veneers 25:16-17.
A short note on several types of figure in a number of woods citing examples
of figure occurring in trees growing in rocky soil, effects of buttressed
roots, and other suspected causes of figure formation.
Heikinheimo, O. 1940. Om Odling av Masurbjörk (On experiments with Masur-birch). Skogen 27:165-167. Text in Swedish. 7 photos. (Duke Univ. Library).
A review of experiments in the growing of figured birch (Betula spp.) in
Finland starting in 1929. Propagation has been by seed and vegetative
propagation. Figured trees require pruning to make them suitable for veneer.
Heikinheimo, O. 1951. Kokemuksia Visakoivun Kasvatuksesta (Experiences in the
growing of curly Birch). Commun. Inst. for Fenn. 39(5):4-26. Text in Finnish.
English Summary. 9 figs. 18 refs. (Duke Univ. Library).
The title of this article refers to "curly" figure but the text is concerned
with the "masur" figure. It was found that this type of figure occurs most
commonly in Betula verrucosa and about 50 per cent of frees come true from
seed. In addition, environmental factors such as stand density affects figure
formation and quality.
Hintikka, T. J. 1922. Die "Wisa"-Krankheit der Birkin in Finland. (The "wisa"
Disease of Birch in Finland.) Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und
Gallenkunde 32(5):193-209. Text in German. 51 refs. (Purdue Univ. Library).
A discussion of the "Wisa" (Masur) disease as it occurs in birch and several
other species in Europe. Aspects of enlarged rays, stem pitting, including
bark and other characteristic features are described and many older references
are included.
Hintikka, T. J. 1936. Om Masurbjörkarna (On Masurbirch). Skogsbruket 1936 pp.
28-30.
Not seen. Not available in U.S. Libraries.
Holmberg, L. H. 1933. Is Suppression a Possible Cause of Bird's-Eye in Sugar
Maple? J. Forestry 31:968-970.
Statistical analysis of growth rate and presence of bird's-eye figure in maple
(Acer saccharum Marsh.) suggest that this figure is more prevalent in
suppressed trees.
Holmberg, L. H. 1934, Is Heredity a Possible Cause of Bird's-Eye in Sugar
Maple? J. Forestry 32:627-628. A reply to an article by F. K. Richter that
contained criticism of the 1933 article on bird's-eye figure by Holmberg.
Holmberg's 1934 article suggests that heredity might be a cause of bird's eye
figure but such figure is not initiated until the tree is almost mature.
Johnsson, H. 1951. Avkommor av Masurbjörk (Experiments with Masur Birch).
Särtryck ur Svenska Skogsvardsföreningens Tidskrift nr. 1. 12 pp. Text in
Swedish. 9 figs. 5 tables. 3 refs. (Copy from Author). Föreningen
Skogstradsforadning, Ekebo, Svalov, Sweden,
A discussion of figure in Betula verrucosa known as "Masur" showing
illustrations of trees and figured wood. Genetic studies indicate that Masur
figure is hereditary. Masur figure is found in several parts of Europe.
Klaehn, F. U. 1950. Die rindendiagnose und birken (Bark characteristics of
Birch). Holz Zentralblatt 61:656-657. Not seen.
Klaehn, F. U. 1951. Die maserbildung und der Birke, Ihre Verbreitung, Formen,
und Ursachen (Masur Figure and Birch. Its propagation, form and cause). Holz
Zentralblatt 77:103. Not seen.
Klaehn, F U. and E. Runquist. 1952. Die Birke (The Birch). Allgemein Forst-
und Jagdzeitung 6:172-175. (For. Abst. 15 No. 2310).
A review of selected Swedish and Finnish literature on Betula verrucosa and B.
pubescens.
Klaehn, F. U. 1954. Über die Maserbirken und die Möglichkeiten ihres Anbaues
(On the Masur Birch and the possibility of its cultivation). Der Forst-und
Holz(wirt) 2:29-31. 2 photos. 7 Refs. (Text in German) National Agricultural
Library. (For. Abst. 15 No. 2311).
Discusses several types of abnormal figure in birch including their causes.
Past investigations are discussed briefly. Some recommendations for growing
figured birch are included. Cites grafting experiments in Germany.
Kohler, A. 1926. The Identification of Furniture Woods. USDA Misc. Cir. No.
66.
A general discussion of figure types occurring in several species of wood
commonly used in furniture.
Lamb, G. N. 1940. Figure in Wood. Northern Nut Growers Assoc. Ann. Rept.
31:28-33.
A review of the curly figure in walnut and the possibility of propagating
figured trees by grafting.
Lamb, G. N. 1950. Burl and Swirl and the Strangler Fig is a Vine. Veneers and
Plywood (April issue) pp. 10-11. 5 photos. (Purdue Univ. Library).
Burl-swirl or "Drappe" figure in mahogany was traced to an influence of the
strangler fig that creates a swirl figure by forcing frees to develop bulges
and a burl figure by penetrating of rootlets into the wood.
Lamb, G. N. and A. Albini. 1956. Figure Types in Mahogany. Mahogany Assoc.,
Chicago. 31 pp. 40 plates. 15 Figs.
A trade booklet developed for designers, architects, and manufacturers showing
various figures that occur in mahogany. Describes development of figure in the
tree and also figures produced by different veneering operations.
Larsen, C. Muhle. 1940. Masurbirk (Masurbirch). Dansk Skovforenings Tidsskri£t
25:33-72. (Text in Danish). 15 photos. 19 refs. (Duke Univ, Library).
Associate Professor and Assistant Professor, Department of Forestry. The work
was supported by McIntire-Stennis funds.
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