Teaching Through Presentation


Teaching Through Involvement


Teaching Through Questioning


From “Looking for Good Teaching:  A Guide to Peer Observation,” by B. B. Helling, 1976, Danforth Faculty Fellowship Project Report, St. Olaf College, Northfield, MN.  (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 186 380).

Some of our potentially most valuable resources in seeking to improve our own teaching are colleagues who share similar goals and similar experiences to our own.  Yet comments upon our teaching made by our peers often tend to focus on our mistakes and to consist of generalities that do not deal with behavior we can do anything about, so that rather than providing the guidance we had hoped for, they leave us feeling threatened, helpless, and discouraged.This observation guide is intended to assist an observer in watching for certain kinds of behavior in order to help the teacher to build on strengths.  It provides information for the teacher which is specific so that he receives some concrete information, selective so that he gets some guidance as to appropriate directions for change, and positive so that he gets some encouragement.  The observer records actual examples to enable the teacher to use his own best practice as the standard to work toward.  The information that comes from the checklist is intended only for the information and use of the teacher, not for evaluation of his performance.The 270 items were drawn from 70 books and articles about good teaching and each represents a description of a recommended classroom practice.  Since there are many kinds of good teaching, there are a wide variety of behaviors listed, including some which are contradictory, the choice depending on what the teacher is trying to do.  The items themselves may become a source of ideas for the teacher, suggesting new or alternative teaching practices.

Teaching Through Presentation

Mechanics

___	Maintains eye contact
___	Moves about room
___	Pays attention to physical comfort and needs of the group (temperature, ability to see or hear, etc.)
___	Variety (change of pace, movement, gesture, variation in voice quality, use of silence...)
___	Varies activities over class period
___	Vocabulary comprehensible to students
___	Assists in mastering new vocabulary (defines, uses)
___	Uses illustrative materials or teaching aids
___	Pictures, blackboard, slides, video, charts or diagrams, maps
___	Stories, personal references, current events items
___	Demonstrations, activities, games
___	Examples, analogies
___	Has students’ attention
___	Sensitive to response of class
___	Paces delivery to students’ capacity to follow
___	Notices questions, volunteers
___	Makes allowance for note-taking
___	Anticipates slowness or difficulty in understanding
___	Notes and reacts to non-attending behavior, lack of interest, confusion, etc.
___	Determines if one student’s problem is common to others
___	Checks comprehension with specific questions before moving on
___	Begins and ends class on time

Scholarship

___	Includes factual knowledge
___	Included fundamental principles, generalizations, theories
___	Includes applications for problem solving and decision-making
___	Indicates how knowledge is obtained
___	Relates content to skills, competencies, and points of view needed by professionals in related fields
___	Shows relation of theory to practice
___	Discusses or contrasts more than one point of view
___	Suggests implications of an idea, position, or theory
___	Goes into detail, presents supporting evidence rather than just generalizations
___	Presents facts or concepts from related fields or relates topics to other areas of knowledge
___	Refers to recent developments in the field
___	Gives references for interesting or involved points
___	Presents origins of ideas and concepts
___	Distinguishes between fact and opinion, data and interpretation
___	Deals with controversial topics
___	Emphasizes ways of solving problems rather than solutions

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Organization

___	Opening
___	States topics
___	Provides an overview of what is planned for the class period
___	Focuses student attention (by demonstration, activity, question, etc.) before launching into lecture proper
___	Presents broader framework within which day’s topic can be placed and related
___	Relates to previous topic and ties in
___	States goals or objectives for class sessions
___	Starts slowly, allowing class to “warm up”

Structure and Clarity

___	States and follows plan
___	Makes organization (chronological, cause-effect, problem solution, etc.) explicit (outline on board, handout, flowchart, diagram, etc.)
___	Presents material in several short blocks
___	Summarizes periodically
___	Indicates transitions
___	Emphasizes important points by incidental cues (voice, gesture, pauses, etc.) repeating key phrases, explicit statements (“This is important”), listing or elaboration (through detail, examples, analogies, rephrasing...)
___	Groups subordinate ideas under major ones
___	Points out relationship between ideas (i.e., uses specific linking words rather than “and”)
___	Refers back to points made or terms used earlier
___	When comparing, makes basis of comparison clear
___	Gives more than one example of application of a generalization, concept, or principle

Closing

___	Social (“Have a good weekend”)
___	Summarizes major points or sees that class does so
___	Draws conclusions
___	Integrates major points
___	Establishes links between familiar and new
___	Makes opportunities for questions (see also below)
___	Looks forward to next topic or step
___	Makes an assignment or suggests an activity which builds on day’s topics, something to do or think about

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Classroom Relationship

___	Appears interested and enthusiastic
___	Interacts informally at beginning, end of class
___	Calls students by name
___	Shows knowledge of individual student’s interests, talents, etc.
___	Gives motivational cues: indicates important and difficult ideas
___	Indicates certain topic will be on examination
___	Suggests that material is difficult but learnable
___	Relates goals and content to social context, course or personal goals
___	Includes material relevant to existing student interests___  Prompts awareness of students’ relevant knowledge or experience (gives or asks for examples, refers to prior learning, etc.)
___	Makes clear (demonstrates) his own way of considering ideas, attacking problems, etc.
___	Refers to work students are doing outside of class___  Uses humor
___	Departs from plan to pursue an idea of spontaneous interest
___	Requires or makes opportunities for student to process information being provided (from rhetorical questions to discussions, written assignments)
___	Admits he doesn’t know or is wrong
___	Talks about why he does what he does in class
___	Informs students of coming campus events related to class
___	Seeks feedback on his own performance
___	Accepts student ideas and comments (by reflecting, clarifying, summarizing, encouraging, or praising)
___	Makes value implications explicit
___	Stresses aesthetic and emotional aspects of subject
___	Invites challenge
___	Indicates his availability for giving individual help
___	Suggests resources for students to explore independently
___	Shifts easily from presentation mode to questioning or discussion mode
___	Provides opportunities for and encourages audience participation and questions
___	Clarifies material when asked
___	Calls for questions in a way that does not embarrass or belittle the questioner
___	Allows time for the formulation of questions
___	Praises question asking, good questions
___	Clarifies thinking by identifying reasons for questions
___	Makes sure that comments or questions have been heard by all
___	Draws out implications of the question
___	Answers questions clearly and directly
___	Checks to see whether answer has been understood
___	Helps student answer his own question
___	Encourages students to answer peer questions
___	Relates student comments to one another
___	Invites students to share their knowledge and experience
___	Remembers and refers to student ideas
___	Interacts with students not physically nearest him
___	Asks follow-up questions
___	Uses student questions or comments to introduce new material

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Teaching Through Involvement

Mechanics

___	Group is of manageable size (15 or fewer)
___	Room arranged so all can see and hear one another
___	Eye contact indicated that responsibility is shared among members of the group
___	Calls students by name

Preparation

___	Establishes common ground prior to discussion
___	Has provided for input-reading, TV or film viewing, observation, etc. - prior to discussion
___	Uses specific means to insure that group members come prepared
___	Helps the group agree on definitions and assumptions
___	Allocates time for the various steps in the discussion
___	Uses specific means to involve students initially in the discussion
___	States objectives
___	Lets students know what will be expected of them in terms of participation
___	Sets a specific objective for the discussion (i.e., produce a list of pros and cons)

Conclusion

___	Draws together contributions of various members of the group
___	Allows time to consider implications of the content of the discussion outside the classroom
___	Requires the group to make a conscious effort to relate the discussion to ideas and concepts acquired in other meetings or other learning situations
___	Summarized and draws new conceptualizations at end
___	Encourages students to conclude with a review including
	Restatement of positions taken
___	Checking if any positions have been modified and why
___	Consideration of future action
___	Suggest a follow-up activity (“Watch for...,” “Try this...,”) related to discussion

Choice of Topic

___	Selects issues which are important and which students take seriously
___	Involves students in deciding what issues to discuss
___	Allows the group some choice in specific discussion content

Involving Students

___	Uses questions to stimulate discussion
___	Prevents or terminates discussion monopolies
___	Makes opportunities (i.e., going around table) for all to participate
___	Seeks to involve individuals who are not participating
___	Recognizes potential contributor and makes an opening for that person
___	Reinforces infrequent contributors
___	Assists a quiet student in “saying what he means”
___	Protects a quiet student from penalties for being wrong
___	Accepts silence

Quality of Interaction

___	Intervenes when pauses become long, not to fill them but to find out why
___	Willing to abandon an exhausted topic
___	Listens
___	Reminds students to listen to one another
___	Shares his perception of group process or feelings
___	When discussion is not going well, stops to deal directly with group processes
___	Indicates that personal attacks are out of order
___	Helps student to accept correction or appropriate criticism
___	Calls attention to and rewards the playing of facilitative group roles
___	Encourages students to acknowledge comments of others by summarizing them
___	Relieves tension
___	Allows time for evaluation of the discussion itself quality and content of discussion
___	Sees that group reviews information from input material before going on to matters of opinion and judgment
___	Encourages feelings and opinions before moving to fact
___	Sees that errors of fact, logic, or relevance are corrected
___	Introduces relevant considerations that have been missed
___	Provides needed or relevant information (contributes facts, needed information, or sees that they are contributed)
___	Questions misconceptions, faulty logic, and unwarranted conclusions
___	Sees that the group questions the accuracy of statements, the relevance of example and analogy, the adequacy of logic
___	Distinguishes a value from a fact
___	Pursues student ideas when they are not clearly expressed
___	Requires student to defend his position, relate it to other ideas, or modify it
___	Points out areas of confusion
___	Intervenes when discussion gets off the track
___	Uses questions to guide discussion
___	Tolerates confusion and doubt while students search for a solution
___	Helps students remain aware of logical organization
___	Refers back to points made or terms used earlier in discussion

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Roles of Teacher

___	Shifts easily back and forth between presentation and discussion or questioning modes
___	Makes own role clear and sticks to it (i.e., moderator, resource person, etc.)
___	Delegates role of moderator
___	States the issue at the beginning, restates as needed
___	Resists the temptation to comment on each student’s comment
___	Paraphrases student comments for his own or student’s understanding
___	Uses non-verbal cues (looking, pointing, silence, facial expression) to direct the discussion without intruding
___	When necessary to intervene, does so briefly
___	Uses strategy on distracters
___	Admits not having an answer
___	Admits losing control of discussion (How did we get here?)

Controversial Issues

___	Selects topics on which a variety of opinions can be expected
___	Encourages expression of differences of opinion
___	Sets up situation in which students will have to think about both sides of an issue
___	Encourages students to challenge, cross question, evaluate one another
___	Accepts student point of view where there is legitimate variation in position
___	Supports the rights of speakers who hold minority or unpopular views
___	Attempts to mediate or resolve differences or conflicts a mong group members
___	When very different positions are taken, obtains temporary agreement on part of issue so discussion can continue
___	Opens two-member controversy to whole group
___	Encourages students to interact directly by asking students to comment on each other’s remarks and/or by asking one student to respond directly to another
___	Refrains from introducing his own opinion to avoid biasing discussion
___	Presents his own opinion to enhance seriousness of discussion
___	Encourages students to challenge his expressed opinions
___	Encourages students to examine a variety of points of view before drawing conclusions or making judgments

Teaching Through Questioning

Mechanics

___	Sees that everyone hears question and answer
___	Calls on individuals before question to alert
___	Asks group-oriented question, lets all think, then one answer
___	Calls on non-volunteers as well as volunteers
___	Allows time after question for formulation of good answers
___	Allows time after answer to consider it
___	Invites alternative or additional answers
___	Involves a large proportion of the class

Design Of The Questions

___	Questions are easily understood, clear in intent and precisely expressed
___	Asks “leading” questions which provide clues to appropriate strategy or way of organizing
___	Prompts with hints, rephrased or simplified questions
___	Asks questions which focus student attention on a particular relevant aspect of the matter at hand
___	Asks related questions in a series
___	Asks questions which require recall of information
___	Asks questions which require processing of information
___	Grouping and classification
___	Compare and contrast
___	Specify cause and effect or other relationship
___	Analysis
___	Generate examples
___	Asks questions with more than one right answer
___	Asks student to apply information from reading or lecture
___	Selecting the information to be applied
___	Selecting the problem and letting student decide
___	Asks questions which require students to generalize
	___To make inferences
	___To evaluate
___	Asks questions on matters of opinion, where any answer is right
___	Asks questions which encourage students to guess or hypothesize about the unknown or untested, to speculate or invent
___	Asks questions that relate to the experience of the student
___	Requires student to support answer with evidence or argument
___	Requires student to specify standard or criteria when expressing judgments or making evaluative statements
___	Asks questions that go beyond facts
___	Asks questions that stimulate reflection beyond the class itself
___	Asks a variety of questions for different pedagogical purposes
	___Emphasis
	___Practice (drill)
	___Self-awareness (student to realize he isn’t getting it)
	___Attention
	___Variety, change of pace in classroom
	___Review

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Class Atmosphere

___	Lets students know how they are free not to respond
	Makes it:
	___ “safe” to speak
	___“safe” to be wrong
___	Holds attention of students who are not directly interacting with the teacher
___	Allows students to respond to one another

Reception Of Answers

___	Gives evidence of listening to answers, not just waiting to hear an expected answer
___	Rephrases an answer to be sure he understands
___	Tries to understand a divergent response rather than rejecting it
___	Asks for further clarification
___	Corrects misconceptions, sees that correct answer is brought out
___	Returns response to student for correction, clarification of thought, rewording of fuzzy statements
___	Gives reasons when rejecting an answer
___	Follows up short or inadequate answers with a probing response that requires student to extend or improve his answer
___	Accepts and acknowledges all answers (“I see what you mean,” “Mmhm”) or
	___by reflecting
	___by clarifying
	___by summarizing
___	Responds directly rather than praising
___	Praises answer
___	Praises an answer selectively, finding some good part
___	Acknowledges the correct  part of a partially correct answer, and tries to get the incorrect part improved - by the same person or another
___	Praises or corrects answers which can be judged by definition, custom, or empirical validation, not others
___	Accepts all responses but praises those closest to the standard more vigorously
___	Asks students to check a wrong answer against other known information or evidence
___	Reminds student of relevant known information or evidence
___	Recognizes student’s right to his own opinion where question is a matter of opinion
___	Accepts the emotional content of an answer independent of its correctness
___	Responds by expressing his own ideas
___	Returns question to student to pin-point difficulties, begin to conceptualize solutions
___	Encourages students to evaluate their own or one another’s answers (what would happen if you did it that way?)
___	Allows, even encourages students to disagree
___	Accepts wild or far-fetched answers

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