In the early 1960's when "Silent Spring " appeared, the debate about pesticides was largely confined to the industrialized nations. Today, however, pesticides are produced and used much more globally.
For example, in 1960 India used pesticides on 6 million ha, while by 1988 the total had increased to 80 million ha treated per year. Brazil, India, and Mexico are now among the largest pesticide consumers in the world. (The leading producers are the US, W. Europe, and Japan.) The third world's use of pesticides increased greatly during Green Revolution in the 1960's and beyond, because:
(1) The high yielding crops were more susceptible to some pests and diseases than were the native, adapted species and were grown in monoculture rather than in diverse mixes of varieties and crops. By contrast, the traditional local varieties had evolved resistance to most of their local pests and diseases. Thus, it became necessary to use more pesticides to maintain the yield advantage conferred by the new varieties.
(2) Pesticide use in lesser developed countries also has increased because they are increasingly growing fruits and vegetables for sale to more developed countries, such as the US. They get high enough prices for these products to make pesticide purchases possible. In addition, consumers in most northern markets, such as the US, have high cosmetic standards for fruits and vegetables, necessitating that the crops be well-protected from pests and diseases. This trend towards more fruits and vegetables grown in lesser developed nations being marketed in northern countries have led to concerns about pesticide residues in imported produce. (See discussion below in this section on use of banned and restricted pesticides.)
(3) A third reason for the increase in pesticide use in less developed countries related to the changed growing conditions brought about by use of green revolution varieties and technologies. Beyond the monocultures discussed above, increases in irrigation and fertilization often improve conditions for pests, necessitating more control efforts.
The lesser developed countries still don't use as much pesticide as does the industrialized world, however pesticide use in many third world countries is not as regulated as it is in the US.
For example, the third largest user of DDT in world (after the governments of India and Brazil) is the UN. The UN uses DDT for mosquito control in malaria areas. In fact, about 1/2 of the pesticides used in the lesser developed countries are persistent organochlorines, such as DDT! They are used because they are cheaper and are considered safer for farmers to apply because of their relatively low short-term toxicity to mammals (including farmers!). (See information on the 2000 POP treaty for more about use of DDT in lesser developed countries.)
Another example involves the acutely toxic (to wildlife as well as to insects!) insecticide monocrotophos (see Swainson's hawk case study , below), which is no longer marketed in the US but still widely sold elsewhere.
In addition, some western nations still export chemicals that are banned or restricted in their own markets, although this is becoming less common than it was in the past. Most often this occurs right after a product is banned in a western country. The importing nations and manufacturers argue that, for the importing nation, the benefits in terms of food production and people's health outweigh the risks.
According to a study in 1996 by the Foundation for Advancements in Science and Education, from 1992 - 1994, the US exported at least 25 million pounds of pesticides that are forbidden in the US, and a total of 344 million pounds of pesticides that are considered "hazardous" were reported as exported. Chlordane, for example, is "severely restricted" in this country, banned in 47 others, and persists in the environment for up to 30 years, yet is exported by a company in Illinois to Argentina, Venezuela and several other Asian nations
However, it is difficult to know exactly how much and which chemicals are being exported from the US. After analyzing US Customs shipping records, the Foundation for Advancements in Science and Education reported that 1.1 billion pounds of agricultural chemicals – 74% of all US pesticide exports – were shipped with the product's identity and frequently the manufacturer's name concealed, ostensibly to protect marketing secrets, as permitted by law...
Of course, some of this export returns to the US in the form of residues on export crops. A study by the Environmental Working Group found that 27% of Chilean grapes were contaminated with the endocrine-disrupting fungicide vin clozolin, compared with less than 1% of US grapes. In more general terms, from 1985 to 1995, more than 14,000 produce shipments were stopped at the US border because of excess pesticide residue, the most frequent problems being from Mexico and Guatemala. Such concerns are a good reason to "eat locally" (there are many other good reasons too, of course, not the least of which are energy considerations; how much do those apples from New Zealand that we enjoy in the winter "cost" in terms of fuel for transportation??).
A nonprofit organization called the Environmental Working Group (1718 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 600, Washington, DC, 20009) reports periodically on health risks from pesticides in produce. The group says that you can cut your exposure significantly by reducing consumption of what they call the "dirty dozen" -- the 12 fruits and vegetables they have found to be most contaminated (not all imported). In 1999, these were strawberries, bell peppers (both red and green), spinach, cherries, peaches, Mexican canteloupes, celery, apples, apricots, green beans, Chilean grapes, and cucumbers.
The next section (">>" at the bottom of the page) examines the question of whether there have been decreases in losses to pest, given the increased use of pesticides. Or, click "Navigate " for general reminders on how to move within and among these documents.
Page last updated (only partially!!) by Patricia Muir on Dec. 2008; most work done on October 19, 2001.